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SupplementaryexercisesChapter1IntroductionI.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:1.Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.2.Linguisticsstudiesparticularlanguage,notlanguagesingeneral.3.Ascientificstudyoflanguageisbasedonwhatthelinguistthinks.4.Inthestudyoflinguistics,hypothesesformedshouldbebasedonlanguagefactsandcheckedagainsttheobservedfacts.5.Generallinguisticsisgenerallythestudyoflanguageasawhole.6.Generallinguistics,whichrelatesitselftotheresearchofotherareas,studiesthebasicconcepts,theories,descriptions,modelsandmethodsapplicableinanylinguisticstudy.7.Phoneticsisdifferentfromphonologyinthatthelatterstudiesthecombinationsofthesoundstoconveymeaningincommunication.8.Morphologystudieshowwordscanbeformedtoproducemeaningfulsentences.9.Thestudyofthewaysinwhichmorphemescanbecombinedtoformwordsiscalledmorphology.10.Syntaxisdifferentfrommorphologyinthattheformernotonlystudiesthemorphemes,butalsothecombinationofmorphemesintowordsandwordsintosentences.11.Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageisknownassemantics.12.Bothsemanticsandpragmaticsstudymeanings.13.Pragmaticsisdifferentfromsemanticsinthatpragmaticsstudiesmeaningnotin

1isolation,butincontext.1.Socialchangescanoftenbringaboutlanguagechanges.2.Sociolinguisticsisthestudyoflanguageinrelationtosociety.3.Modernlinguisticsismostlyprescriptive,butsometimesdescriptive.4.Modernlinguisticsisdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar.5.Adiachronicstudyoflanguageisthedescriptionoflanguageatsomepointintime.6.Modernlinguisticsregardsthewrittenlanguageasprimary,notthewrittenlanguage.7.ThedistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformancewasproposedbyF.deSaussure.n.Fillineachofthefollowingblankswithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:8.Chomskydefines“competence"astheidealuser'skoftherulesofhislanguage.9.Languereferstothealinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunitywhiletheparoleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandapplicationoftherules.10.Disoneofthedesignfeaturesofhumanlanguagewhichreferstothephenomenonthatlanguageconsistsoftwolevels:alowerlevelofmeaninglessindividualsoundsandahigherlevelofmeaningfulunits.11.Languageisasystemofavocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.

21.Thedisciplinethatstudiestherulesgoverningtheformationofwordsintopermissiblesentencesinlanguagesiscalleds.2.Humancapacityforlanguagehasagbasis,butthedetailsoflanguagehavetobetaughtandlearned.3.Preferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse.4.Findingsinlinguisticstudiescanoftenbeappliedtothesettlementofsomepracticalproblems.Thestudyofsuchapplicationsisgenerallyknownasalinguistics.5.Languageispinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Inotherwords,theycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentenceswhichtheyhaveneverheardbefore.6.Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthesstudyoflanguage.m.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:7.Ifalinguisticstudydescribesandanalyzesthelanguagepeopleactuallyuse,itissaidtobe.A.prescriptiveB.analyticC.descriptiveD.linguistic32.Whichofthefollowingisnotadesignfeatureofhumanlanguage?A.ArbitrarinessB.Displacement

3A.DualityB.Meaningfulness32.Modernlinguisticsregardsthewrittenlanguageas.A.primaryB.correctC.secondaryD.stable33.Inmodernlinguistics,speechisregardedasmorebasicthanwriting,becauseA.inlinguisticevolution,speechispriortowritingB.speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyedC.speechisalwaysthewayinwhicheverynativespeakeracquireshismothertongueD.Alloftheabove34.Ahistoricalstudyoflanguageisastudyoflanguage.A.synchronicB.diachronicC.prescriptiveD.comparative35.Saussuretooka(n)viewoflanguage,whileChomskylooksatlanguagefromapointofview.

4A.sociological...psychologicalB.psychological...sociologicalC.applied...pragmatic0.semantic...linguistic32.AccordingtoF.deSaussure,referstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemem-bersofaspeechcommunity.A.paroleB.performanceC.langueD.Language33.Languageissaidtobearbitrarybecausethereisnologicalconnectionbetweenandmeanings.A.senseB.soundsC.objectsD.ideas34.Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.Thisfeatureiscalled,A.displacementB.dualityC.flexibilityD.culturaltransmission

532.Thedetailsofanylanguagesystemispassedonfromonegenerationtothenextthrough,ratherthanbyinstinct.A.learningB.teachingC.booksD.bothAandBIV.Definethefollowingterms:33.Linguistics34.Phonology35.Syntax36.Pragmatics37.Psycholinguistics38.Language39.Phonetics40.Morphology41.Semantics42.Sociolinguistics43.AppliedLinguistics44.Arbitrariness45.Productivity46.Displacement47.Duality48.DesignFeatures

632.Competence33.Performance34.Langue35.ParoleV.Answerthefollowingquestionsascomprehensivelyaspossible.Giveexamplesforillustrationifnecessary:36.Languageisgenerallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommu-nication.Explainitindetail.37.Whatarethedesignfeaturesofhumanlanguage?Illustratethemwithexamples.38.Howismodernlinguisticsdifferentfromtraditionalgrammar?39.Howdoyouunderstandthedistinctionbetweenasynchronicstudyandadiachronicstudy?40.Whydoesmodernlinguisticsregardthespokenformoflanguageasprimary,notthewritten?41.Whatarethemajordistinctionsbetweenlangueandparole?42.Howdoyouunderstandcompetenceandperformance?43.Saussure1sdistinctionbetweenlangueandparoleseemssimilartoChomsky'sdistinctionbetweencompetenceandperformance.Whatdoyouthinkaretheirmajordifferences?44.Doyouthinkhumanlanguageisentirelyarbitrary?Why?Chapter2PhonologyI.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:1.VoicingisaphonologicalfeaturethatdistinguishesmeaninginbothChineseand

7English.1.Iftwophoneticallysimilarsoundsoccurinthesameenvironmentsandtheydistinguishmeaning,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.2.Aphoneisaphoneticunitthatdistinguishesmeaning.3.EnglishisatonelanguagewhileChineseisnot.4.Inlinguisticevolution,speechispriortowriting.5.Ineverydaycommunication,speechplaysagreaterrolethanwritingintermsoftheamountofinformationconveyed.6.Articulatoryphoneticstriestodescribethephysicalpropertiesofthestreamofsoundswhichaspeakerissueswiththehelpofamachinecalledspectrograph.7.Thearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingarecontainedinthreeimportantareas:thethroat,themouthandthechest.8.Vibrationofthevocalcordsresultsinaqualityofspeechsoundscalledvoicing.9.Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintermsofplaceofarticulationandthepartofthetonguethatisraisedthehighest.10.Accordingtothemannerofarticulation,someofthetypesintowhichtheconsonantscanbeclassifiedarestops,fricatives,bilabialandalveolar.11.Vowelsoundscanbedifferentiatedbyanumberoffactors:thepositionoftongueinthemouth,theopennessofthemouth,theshapeofthelips,andthelengthofthevowels.12.Accordingtotheshapeofthelips,vowelscanbeclassifiedintoclosevowels,semi-closevowels,semi-openvowelsandopenvowels.13.Anysoundproducedbyahumanbeingisaphoneme.

81.Phonesarethesoundsthatcandistinguishmeaning.2.Phonologyisconcernedwithhowthesoundscanbeclassifiedintodifferentcategories.3.Abasicwaytodeterminethephonemesofalanguageistoseeifsubstitutingonesoundforanotherresultsinachangeofmeaning.4.Whentwodifferentformsareidenticalineverywayexceptforonesoundsegmentwhichoccursinthesameplaceinthestrings,thetwowordsaresaidtoformaphonemiccontrast.5.Therulesgoverningthephonologicalpatterningarelanguagespecific.6.Distinctivefeaturesofsoundsegmentscanbefoundrunningoverasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments.n.Fillineachofthefollowingblankswithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:7.Areferstoastrongpuffofairstreamintheproductionofspeechsounds.8.Aphoneticsdescribesthewayourspeechorgansworktoproducethespeechsoundsandhowtheydiffer.9.Thefoursounds/p/,/b/,/m/and/w/haveonefeatureincommon,i.e.,theyareallbsounds.10.Ofallthespeechorgans,thetisthemostflexible,andisresponsibleforvarietiesofarticulationthananyother.11.Englishconsonantscanbeclassifiedintermsofmannerofarticulationorintermsofpofarticulation.12.Whentheobstructioncreatedbythespeechorgansistotalorcomplete,the

9speechsoundproducedwiththeobstructionaudiblyreleasedandtheairpassingoutagainiscalledas.1.Sfeaturesarethephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegments.Theyincludestress,tone,intonation,etc.2.Therulesthatgovernthecombinationofsoundsinaparticularlanguagearecalledsrules.3.Thetranscriptionofspeechsoundswithletter-symbolsonlyiscalledbroadtranscriptionwhilethetranscriptionwithletter-symbolstogetherwiththediacriticsiscalledntranscription.4.Whenpitch,stressandsoundlengtharetiedtothesentenceratherthanthewordinisolation,theyarecollectivelyknownasi.5.Pisadisciplinewhichstudiesthesystemofsoundsofaparticularlanguageandhowsoundsarecombinedintomeaningfulunitstoeffectlinguisticcommunication.6.Thearticulatoryapparatusofahumanbeingarecontainedinthreeimportantcavities:thepharyngealcavity,the〇cavityandthenasalcavity.7.Tarepitchvariations,whicharecausedbythedifferingratesofvibrationofthevocalcordsandwhichcandistinguishmeaningjustlikephonemes.8.Dependingonthecontextinwhichstressisconsidered,therearetwokindsofstress:wordstressandsstress.HI.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbest

10completethestatement:1.Ofallthespeechorgans,theis/arethemostflexible.A.mouthB.lipsC.tongueD.vocalcords36.Thesoundsproducedwithoutthevocalcordsvibratingaresounds.A.voicelessB.voicedC.vowelD.consonantal37.isavoicedalveolarstop.A./z/B./d/C./k/D./b/38.Theassimilationruleassimilatesonesoundtoanotherby“copying“afeatureofasequentialphoneme,thusmakingthetwophones.A.identicalB.sameC.exactlyalikeD.similar

1138.Since/p/and/b/arephoneticallysimilar,occurinthesameenvironmentsandtheycandistinguishmeaning,theyaresaidtobe.A.inphonemiccontrastB.incomplementarydistributionC.theallophonesD.minimalpair39.Thesound/f/is.A.voicedpalatalaffricateB.voicedalveolarstopC.voicelessvelarfricativeD.voicelesslabiodentalfricative40.Avowelisonethatisproducedwiththefrontpartofthetonguemaintainingthehighestposition.A.backB.centralC.frontD.middle41.Distinctivefeaturescanbefoundrunningoverasequenceoftwoormorephonemicsegments.Thephonemicfeaturesthatoccurabovethelevelofthesegmentsarecalled.A.phoneticcomponentsB.immediateconstituentsC.suprasegmentalfeatures

12A.semanticfeatures38.A(n)isaunitthatisofdistinctivevalue.Itisanabstractunit,acollectionofdistinctivephoneticfeatures.A.phoneB.soundC.allophoneD.phoneme39.Thedifferentphoneswhichcanrepresentaphonemeindifferentphoneticenvironmentsarecalledtheofthatphoneme.A.phonesB.soundsC.phonemesD.allophonesIV.Definethetermsbelow:45.phonology46.phoneme47.allophone48.internationalphoneticalphabet49.intonation50.phonetics51.auditoryphonetics52.acousticphonetics53.phone54.phonemiccontrast55.tone

1351.minimalpairV.Answerthefollowingquestionsascomprehensivelyaspossible.Giveexamplesforillustrationifnecessary:52.Ofthetwomediaoflanguage,whydoyouthinkspeechismorebasicthanwriting?53.Whatarethecriteriathatalinguistusesinclassifyingvowels?54.Whatarethemajordifferencesbetweenphonologyandphonetics?55.Illustratewithexampleshowsuprasegmentalfeaturescanaffectmeaning.56.Inwhatwaycanwedeterminewhetheraphoneisaphonemeornot?Chapter3MorphologyI.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:1.Morphologystudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.2.Wordsarethesmallestmeaningfulunitsoflanguage.3.Justasaphonemeisthebasicunitinthestudyofphonology,soisamorphemethebasicunitinthestudyofmorphology.4.Thesmallestmeaningfulunitsthatcanbeusedfreelyallbythemselvesarefreemorphemes.5.Boundmorphemesincludetwotypes:rootsandaffixes.6.Inflectionalmorphemesmanifestvariousgrammaticalrelationsorgrammaticalcategoriessuchasnumber,tense,degree,andcase.7.Theexistingformtowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeaddediscalledastem,whichcanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitself.

141.Prefixesusuallymodifythepartofspeechoftheoriginalword,notthemeaningofit.2.Therearerulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewword.Therefore,wordsformedaccordingtothemorphologicalrulesareacceptablewords.3.Phonetically,thestressofacompoundalwaysfallsonthefirstelement,whilethesecondelementreceivessecondarystress.n.Fillineachblankbelowwithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:4.Misthesmallestmeaningfulunitoflanguage.5.Theaffix"-ish"inthewordboyishconveysagmeaning.6.Bmorphemesarethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.7.Affixesareoftwotypes:inflectionalaffixesanddaffixes.8.Daffixesareaddedtoanexistingformtocreatewords.9.Asisaddedtotheendofstemstomodifythemeaningoftheoriginalwordanditmaycasechangeitspartofspeech.10.Cisthecombinationoftwoorsometimesmorethantwowordstocreatenewwords.11.Therulesthatgovernwhichaffixcanbeaddedtowhattypeofstemtoformanewwordarecalledmrules.12.Intermsofmorphemicanalysis,dcanbeviewedastheadditionofaffixestostemstoformnewwords.

151.Ascanbeaboundroot,afreemorpheme,oraderivedformitselftowhichaderivationalaffixcanbeadded.HI.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:2.Themorpheme"vision"inthecommonword"television"isa(n).A.boundmorphemeB.boundformC.inflectionalmorphemeD.freemorpheme3.Thecompoundword“bookstore“istheplacewherebooksaresold.Thisindicatesthatthemeaningofacompound.A.isthesumtotalofthemeaningofitscomponentsB.canalwaysbeworkedoutbylookingatthemeaningsofmorphemesC.isthesameasthemeaningofafreephrase.D.Noneoftheabove.4.Thepartofspeechofthecompoundsisgenerallydeterminedbythepartofspeechof.A.thefirstelementB.thesecondelementC.eitherthefirstorthesecondelementD.boththefirstandthesecondelements5.arethosethatcannotbeusedindependentlybuthavetobecombinedwithothermorphemes,eitherfreeorbound,toformaword.

16A.FreemorphemesB.BoundmorphemesC.BoundwordsD.Words25.isabranchofgrammarwhichstudiestheinternalstructureofwordsandtherulesbywhichwordsareformed.A.SyntaxB.GrammarC.MorphologyD.Morpheme26.Themeaningcarriedbytheinflectionalmorphemeis.A.lexicalB.morphemicC.grammaticalD.semantic27.Boundmorphemesarethosethat.A.havetobeusedindependentlyB.cannotbecombinedwithothermorphemesC.caneitherbefreeorboundD.havetobecombinedwithothermorphemes28.modifythemeaningofthestem,butusuallydonotchangethepartofspeechoftheoriginalword.

17A.PrefixesB.SuffixesC.RootsD.Affixes26.areoftenthoughttobethesmallestmeaningfulunitsoflanguagebythelinguists.A.WordsB.MorphemesC.PhonemesD.Sentences30."-s"intheword"books"is.A.aderivativeaffixB.astemC.aninflectionalaffixD.arootIV.Definethefollowingterms:31.morphology32.inflectionalmorphology33.derivationalmorphology34.morpheme35.freemorpheme36.boundmorpheme37.root

1830.affix31.prefix32.suffix33.derivation34.CompoundingV.Answerthefollowingquestions:35.WhatarethemainfeaturesoftheEnglishcompounds?36.Discussthetypesofmorphemeswithexamples.Chapter4Syntax1.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:1.Syntaxisasubfiedoflinguisticsthatstudiesthesentencestructureoflanguage,includingthecombinationofmorphemesintowords.2.Grammaticalsentencesareformedfollowingasetofsyntacticrules.3.Sentencesarecomposedofsequenceofwordsarrangedinasimplelinearorder,withoneaddingontoanotherfollowingasimplearithmeticlogic.4.Universallyfoundinthegrammarsofallhumanlanguages,syntacticrulesthatcomprisethesystemofinternalizedlinguisticknowledgeofalanguagespeakerareknownaslinguisticcompetence.5.Thesyntacticrulesofanylanguagearefiniteinnumber,butthereisnolimittothenumberofsentencesnativespeakersofthatlanguageareabletoproduceandcomprehend.6.Inacomplexsentence,thetwoclausesholdunequalstatus,onesubordinatingthe

19other.1.Constituentsthatcanbesubstitutedforoneanotherwithoutlossofgrammaticalitybelongtothesamesyntacticcategory.2.Minorlexicalcategoriesareopenbecausethesecategoriesarenotfixedandnewmembersareallowedfor.3.InEnglishsyntacticanalysis,fourphrasalcategoriesarecommonlyrecognizedanddiscussed,namely,nounphrase,verbphrase,infinitivephrase,andauxiliaryphrase.4.InEnglishthesubjectusuallyprecedestheverbandthedirectobjectusuallyfollowstheverb.5.Whatisactuallyinternalizedinthemindofanativespeakerisacompletelistofwordsandphrasesratherthangrammaticalknowledge.6.Anounphrasemustcontainanoun,butotherelementsareoptional.7.Itisbelievedthatphrasestructurerules,withtheinsertionofthelexicon,generatesentencesatthelevelofD-structure.8.WH-movementisobligatoryinEnglishwhichchangesasentencefromaffirmativetointerrogative,n.Fillineachofthefollowingblankswithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:9.Assentenceconsistsofasingleclausewhichcontainsasubjectandapredicateandstandsaloneasitsownsentence.10.Asisastructurallyindependentunitthatusuallycomprisesanumberofwordstoformacompletestatement,questionorcommand.

201.Asmaybeanounoranounphraseinasentencethatusuallyprecedesthepredicate.2.Thepartofasentencewhichcomprisesafiniteverboraverbphraseandwhichsayssomethingaboutthesubjectisgrammaticallycalledp.3.Acsentencecontainstwo,ormore,clauses,oneofwhichisincorporatedintotheother.4.Inthecomplexsentence,theincorporatedorsubordinateclauseisnormallycalledaneclause.5.Majorlexicalcategoriesare〇categoriesinthesensethatnewwordsareconstantlyadded.6.AConditiononcaseassignmentstatesthatacaseassignorandacaserecipientshouldstayadjacenttoeachother.7.ParesyntacticoptionsofUGthatallowgeneralprinciplestooperateinonewayoranotherandcontributetosignificantlinguisticvariationsbetweenandamongnaturallanguages.8.ThetheoryofCconditionexplainsthefactthatnounphrasesappearonlyinsubjectandobjectpositions.DI.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:9.Asentenceisconsideredwhenitdoesnotconformtothegrammaticalknowledgeinthemindofnativespeakers.A.right

21A.wrongB.grammaticalD.ungrammatical1.Aintheembeddedclausereferstotheintroductorywordthatintroducestheembeddedclause.A.coordinatorB.particleC.prepositionD.subordinator2.Phrasestructureruleshaveproperties.A.recursiveB.grammaticalC.socialD.functional3.Phrasestructurerulesallowustobetterunderstand.A.howwordsandphrasesformsentences.B.whatconstitutesthegrammaticalityofstringsofwordsC.howpeopleproduceandrecognizepossiblesentencesD.Alloftheabove.4.Syntacticmovementisdictatedbyrulestraditionallycalled.A.transformationalrulesB.generativerulesC.phrasestructurerules

22A.x-bartheory1.Thetheoryofcaseconditionaccountsforthefactthat.A.nounphrasesappearonlyinsubjectandobjectpositions.B.nounphrasescanbeusedtomodifyanothernounphraseC.nounphrasecanbeusedinadverbialpositionsD.nounphrasecanbemovedtoanyplaceifnecessary.2.Thesentencestructureis.A.onlylinearB.OnlyhierarchicalC.complexD.bothlinearandhierarchical3.Thesyntacticrulesofanylanguageareinnumber.A.largeB.smallC.finiteD.infinite4.Therulesaretherulesthatgroupwordsandphrasestoformgrammaticalsentences.A.lexicalB.morphologicalC.linguisticD.combinational5.rulesmaychangethesyntacticrepresentationofasentence.

23A.GenerativeB.TransformationalC.X-barD.PhrasestructureIV.Definethefollowingterms:35.syntax36.Sentence37.coordinatesentence38.syntacticcategories39.grammaticalrelations40.linguisticcompetence41.transformationalrules42.D-structureV.Answerthefollowingquestions:43.Whatarethebasiccomponentsofasentence?44.Whatarethemajortypesofsentences?Illustratethemwithexamples.45.Aretheelementsinasentencelinearlystructured?Why?46.Whataretheadvantagesofusingtreediagramsintheanalysisofsentencestructures?47.WhatisNPmovement.Illustrateitwithexamples.Chapter5SemanticsI.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:1.DialectalsynonymscanoftenbefoundindifferentregionaldialectssuchasBritish

24EnglishandAmericanEnglishbutcannotbefoundwithinthevarietyitself,forexample,withinBritishEnglishorAmericanEnglish.1.Senseisconcernedwiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience,whilethereferencedealswiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.2.Linguisticformshavingthesamesensemayhavedifferentreferencesindifferentsituations.3.Insemantics,meaningoflanguageisconsideredastheintrinsicandinherentrelationtothephysicalworldofexperience.4.Contextualismisbasedonthepresumptionthatonecanderivemeaningfromorreducemeaningtoobservablecontexts.5.Behaviouristsattemptedtodefinethemeaningofalanguageformasthesituationinwhichthespeakeruttersitandtheresponseitcallsforthinthehearer.6.Themeaningofasentenceisthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitscomponents.7.Mostlanguageshavesetsoflexicalitemssimilarinmeaningbutrankeddifferentlyaccordingtotheirdegreeofformality.8.“Itishot."isano-placepredicationbecauseitcontainsnoargument9.Ingrammaticalanalysis,thesentenceistakentobethebasicunit,butinsemanticanalysisofasentence,thebasicunitispredication,whichistheabstractionofthemeaningofasentence,n.Fillineachofthefollowingblankswithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:10.Scanbedefinedasthestudyofmeaning.

251.Theconceptualistviewholdsthatthereisnodlinkbetweenalinguisticformandwhatitrefersto.2.Rmeanswhatalinguisticformreferstointhereal,physicalworld;itdealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.3.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalleds.4.Whentwowordsareidenticalinsound,butdifferentinspellingandmeaning,theyarecalledh.5.Roppositesarepairsofwordsthatexhibitthereversalofarelationshipbetweenthetwoitems.6.Canalysisisbaseduponthebeliefthatthemeaningofawordcanbedividedintomeaningcomponents.7.Whetherasentenceissemanticallymeaningfulisgovernedbyrulescalledsrestrictions,whichareconstraintsonwhatlexicalitemscangowithwhatothers.8.Anaisalogicalparticipantinapredication,largelyidenticalwiththenominalelement(s)inasentence.9.Accordingtothentheoryofmeaning,thewordsinalanguagearetakentobelabelsoftheobjectstheystandfor.JU.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:10.Thenamingtheoryisadvancedby.

26A.PlatoB.BloomfieldC.GeoffreyLeechD.Firth1.“Weshallknowawordbythecompanyitkeeps."ThisstatementrepresentsA.theconceptualistviewB.contexutalismC.thenamingtheoryD.behaviourism2.Whichofthefollowingisnottrue?A.Senseisconcernedwiththeinherentmeaningofthelinguisticform.B.Senseisthecollectionofallthefeaturesofthelinguisticform.C.Senseisabstractanddecontextualized.D.Senseistheaspectofmeaningdictionarycompilersarenotinterestedin.3."CanIborrowyourbike?""Youhaveab汰e."A.issynonymouswithB.isinconsistentwithC.entailsD.presupposes25.isawayinwhichthemeaningofawordcanbedissectedintomeaningcomponents,calledsemanticfeatures.A.Predicationanalysis

27A.ComponentialanalysisB.PhonemicanalysisC.Grammaticalanalysis26."Alive"and"dead"are.A.gradableantonymsB.relationaloppositesC.complementaryantonymsD.Noneoftheabove27.dealswiththerelationshipbetweenthelinguisticelementandthenon-linguisticworldofexperience.A.ReferenceB.ConceptC.SemanticsD.Sense28.referstothephenomenonthatwordshavingdifferentmeaningshavethesameform.A.PolysemyB.SynonymyC.HomonymyD.Hyponymy29.Wordsthatarecloseinmeaningarecalled.A.homonymsB.polysemy

28A.hyponymsB.synonyms26.Thegrammaticalityofasentenceisgovernedby.A.grammaticalrulesB.selectionalrestrictionsC.semanticrulesD.semanticfeaturesIV.Definethefollowingterms:27.semantics28.sense29.reference30.synonymy31.polysemy32.homonymy33.homophones34.Homographs35.completehomonyms36.hyponymy37.antonymy38.componentialanalysis39.grammaticalmeaning40.predication41.Argument

2926.predicate27.two-placepredicationV.Answerthefollowingquestions:28.Whydowesaythatameaningofasentenceisnotthesumtotalofthemeaningsofallitscomponents?29.Whatiscomponentialanalysis?Illustrateitwithexamples.30.Howdoyoudistinguishbetweenentailmentandpresuppositionintermsoftruthvalues?31.Howdoyouaccountforsuchsenserelationsbetweensentencesassynonymousrelation,inconsistentrelationintermsoftruthvalues?32.Accordingtothewaysynonymsdiffer,howmanygroupscanweclassifysynonymsinto?Illustratethemwithexamples.33.Whatarethemajorviewsconcerningthestudyofmeaning?Howtheydiffer?Chapter6PragmaticsI.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:1.Bothsemanticsandpragmaticsstudyhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication2.Pragmaticstreatsthemeaningoflanguageassomethingintrinsicandinherent.3.Itwouldbeimpossibletogiveanadequatedescriptionofmeaningifthecontextoflanguageusewasleftunconsidered.4.Whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.5.Themajordifferencebetweenasentenceandanutteranceisthatasentenceisnotutteredwhileanutteranceis.

301.Themeaningofasentenceisabstract,butcontext-dependent.2.Themeaningofanutteranceisdecontexualized,thereforestable.3.Utterancesalwaystaketheformofcompletesentences4.SpeechacttheorywasoriginatedwiththeBritishphilosopherJohnSearle.5.Speechacttheorystartedinthelate50'softhe20thcentury.6.Austinmadethedistinctionbetweenaconstativeandaperformative.7.Perlocutionaryactistheactofexpressingthespeaker'sintention.n.Fillineachblankbelowwithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:8.Pisthestudyofhowspeakersofalanguageusesentencestoeffectsuccessfulcommunication.9.Whatessentiallydistinguishessandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningthecontextofuseisconsidered.10.Thenotionofcisessentialtothepragmaticstudyoflanguage.11.Ifwethinkofasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication,itbecomesanu.12.Themeaningofasentenceisa,anddecontexualized.13.Cwerestatementsthateitherstateordescribe,andwerethusverifiable.14.Pweresentencesthatdidnotstateafactordescribeastate,andwerenotverifiable.15.AIactistheactofutteringwords,phrases,clauses.Itistheactofconveyingliteralmeaningbymeansofsyntax,lexiconandphonology.16.Aniactistheactofexpressingthespeaker'sintention;itistheactperformedinsayingsomething.

311.Aciscommitthespeakerhimselftosomefuturecourseofaction.2.Aneistoexpressfeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstate.3.Therearefourmaximsunderthecooperativeprinciple:themaximofq,themaximofquality,themaximofrelationandthemaximofmanner.m.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:25.doesnotstudymeaninginisolation,butincontext.A.PragmaticsB.SemanticsC.SenserelationD.Concept26.Themeaningoflanguagewasconsideredassomethingintraditionalsemantics.A.contextualB.behaviouristicC.intrinsicD.logical27.Whatessentiallydistinguishessemanticsandpragmaticsiswhetherinthestudyofmeaningisconsidered.A.referenceB.speechactC.practicalusageD.context

3225.Asentenceisaconcept；andthemeaningofasentenceisoftenstudiedinisolation.A.pragmaticB.grammaticalC.mentalD.conceptual26.Ifwethinkofasentenceaswhatpeopleactuallyutterinthecourseofcommunication；itbecomesa(n).A.constativeB.directiveC.utteranceD.expressive27.Whichofthefollowingistrue?A.Utterancesusuallydonottaketheformofsentences.B.Someutterancescannotberestoredtocompletesentences.C.Noutterancescantaketheformofsentences.D.Allutterancescanberestoredtocompletesentences.28.Speechacttheorydidnotcomeintobeinguntil.A.inthelate50'softhe20thecenturyB.intheearly1950'sC.inthelateI960'sD.intheearly21stcentury32.istheactperformedbyorresultingfromsayingsomething;itistheconsequence

33of,orthechangebroughtaboutbytheutterance.A.AlocutionaryactB.AnillocutionaryactC.AperlocutionaryactD.Aperformativeact33.AccordingtoSearle,theillocutionarypointoftherepresentativeis.A.togetthehearertodosomethingB.tocommitthespeakertosomething'sbeingthecaseC.tocommitthespeakertosomefuturecourseofactionD.toexpressthefeelingsorattitudetowardsanexistingstateofaffairs34.Alltheactsthatbelongtothesamecategorysharethesamepurpose,buttheydiffer.A.intheirillocutionaryacts.B.intheirintentionsexpressedC.intheirstrengthorforceD.intheireffectbroughtabout35.isadvancedbyPaulGriceA.CooperativePrincipleB.PolitenessPrincipleC.TheGeneralPrincipleofUniversalGrammarD.AdjacencyPrinciple36.Whenanyofthemaximsunderthecooperativeprincipleisflouted,mightarise.A.impoliteness

34A.contradictionsB.mutualunderstandingC.conversationalimplicaturesIV.Definethetermsbelow:36.pragmatics37.context38.utterancemeaning39.sentencemeaning40.constative41.performative42.locutionaryact43.illocutionaryact44.perlocutionaryact45.CooperativePrincipleV.Answerthefollowingquestionsascomprehensivelyaspossible.Giveexamplesforillustrationifnecessary:46.Howaresemanticsandpragmaticsdifferentfromeachother?47.Howdoesasentencedifferfromanutterance?48.Howdoesasentencemeaningdifferfromanutterancemeaning?49.Discussindetailthelocutionaryact,illocutionaryactandperlocutionaryact.50.Searleclassifiedillocutionaryactintofivecategories.Discusseachofthemindetailwithexamples.51.Whatarethefourmaximsunderthecooperativeprinciple?

3536.Howdoesthefloutingofthemaximsgiverisetoconversationalimplicatures?Chapter7HistoricalLinguistics1.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:1.Oneofthetasksofthehistoricallinguistsistoexploremethodstoreconstructlinguistichistoryandestablishtherelationshipbetweenlanguages.2.Languagechangeisagradualandconstantprocess,thereforeoftenindiscernibletospeakersofthesamegeneration.3.ThehistoryoftheEnglishlanguageisdividedintotheperiodsofOldEnglish,MiddleEnglishandModernEnglish.4.MiddleEnglishbeganwiththearrivalofAnglo-Saxons,whoinvadedtheBritishIslesfromnorthernEurope.5.InOldEnglish,allthenounsareinflectedtomarknominative,genitive,dativeandaccusativecases.6.InOldEnglish,theverbofasentenceoftenprecedesthesubjectratherthanfollowsit.7.AdirectconsequenceoftheRenaissanceMovementwastherevivalofFrenchasaliterarylanguage.8.Ingeneral,linguisticchangeingrammarismorenoticeablethanthatinthesoundsystemandthevocabularyofalanguage.9.Thesoundchangesincludechangesinvowelsounds,andintheloss,gainandmovementofsounds.10.Theleastwidely-spreadmorphologicalchangesinthehistoricaldevelopmentof

36Englisharethelossandadditionofaffixes.1.InOldEnglish,themorphosyntacticruleofadjectiveagreementstipulatedthattheendingsofadjectivemustagreewiththeheadnounincase,numberandgender.2.ThewordorderofModernEnglishismorevariablethanthatofOldEnglish.3.Derivationreferstotheprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytheadditionofaffixestotheroots,stems,orwords.4."Smog"isawordformedbytheword-formingprocesscalledacronymy.5.“Fridge“isawordformedbyabbreviation.6.Modernlinguistsareabletoprovideaconsistentaccountfortheexactcausesofalltypesoflanguagechange.7.Soundassimilationmaybringaboutthelossofoneoftwophoneticallysimilarsyllablesinsequence,asinthecaseofchangeof"Engla-land"to"England".8.Ruleelaborationoccurswhenthereisaneedtoreduceambiguityandincreasecommunicativeclarityorexpressiveness.9.Languagechangeisalwaysachangetowardsthesimplificationoflanguagerules10.Thewaychildrenacquirethelanguageisoneofthecausesforlanguagechange.n.Fillineachofthefollowingblankswithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:11.Hlinguisticsisthesubfieldoflinguisticsthatstudieslanguagechange.12.Thehistoricalstudyoflanguageisadstudyoflanguageratherthanasynchronicstudy.13.EuropeanRMovementseparatestheperiodofMiddleEnglishfromthatofmodernEnglish.14.Animportantsetofextensivesoundchanges,whichaffected7longortense

37vowelsandwhichledtooneofthemajordiscrepanciesbetweenphonemicrepresentationsofwordsandmorphemesattheendoftheMiddleEnglishPeriod,isknownastheGreatVShift.1.Ainvolvesthedeletionofaword-finalvowelsegment.2.Achangethatinvolvestheinsertionofaconsonantorvowelsoundtothemiddleofawordisknownase.3.ThethreesetsofconsonantshiftsthatGrimmdiscoveredbecameknowncollectivelyasGrimmsL.4.Soundchangeasaresultofsoundmovement,knownasm,involvesareversalinpositionoftwoadjoiningsoundsegments.5.Bisaprocessbywhichnewwordsareformedbytakingawaythesupposedsuffixesofexitingwords.6.Semanticbreferstotheprocessinwhichthemeaningofawordbecomesmoregeneralorinclusivethanitshistoricallyearlierdenotation.7.TheoriginalformofalanguagefamilythathasceasedtoexistiscalledtheP-8.Soundareferstothephysiologicaleffectofonesoundonanother.Inthisprocess,successivesoundsaremadeidenticalorsimilartooneanotherintermsofplaceormannerofarticulation.9.Inordertoreducetheexceptionalorirregularmorphemes,speakersofaparticularlanguagemayborrowarulefromonepartofthegrammarandapplyit

38generally.Thisphenomenoniscallediborrowing.1.Byidentifyingandcomparingsimilarlinguisticformswithsimilarmeaningsacrossrelatedlanguages,historicallinguistsreconstructtheprotoforminthecommonancestrallanguage.Thisprocessiscalledcreconstruction.2.ThemruleofadjectiveagreementhasbeenlostfromEnglish.m.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:3.Historicallinguisticsexplores.A.thenatureoflanguagechangeB.thecausesthatleadtolanguagechangeC.therelationshipbetweenlanguagesD.alloftheabove4.Languagechangeis.A.universal,continuousand,toalargeextent,regularandsystematicB.continuous,regular,systematic,butnotuniversalC.universal,continuous,butnotregularandsystematicD.alwaysregularandsystematic,butnotuniversalandcontinuous5.ModernEnglishperiodstartsroughly.A.from449to1100B.from1500tothepresentC.from1100tothepresentD.from1700tothepresent6.OldEnglishdatesbacktothemid-fifthcenturywhen.

39A.theNormanFrenchinvadersunderWilliamtheConquerorarrivedinEnglandB.theprintingtechnologywasinventedC.Anglo-SaxonsinvadedtheBritishIslesfromnorthernEuropeD.theCelticpeoplebegantoinhabitEngland1.MiddleEnglishwasdeeplyinfluencedby.A.NormanFrenchinvocabularyandgrammarB.GreekandLatinbecauseoftheEuropeanrenaissancemovementC.DanishlanguagesbecauseDenmarkplacedakingonthethroneofEnglandD.theCelticpeoplewhowerethefirstinhabitantsofEngland2.Languagechangeisessentiallyamatterofchange.A.incollocationsB.inmeaningC.ingrammarD.inusages3.InOldandMiddleEnglish,both/k/and/n/intheword"knight"werepronounced,butinmodernEnglish,/k/inthesound/kn-/clusterswasnotpronounced.Thisphenomenonisknownas.A.soundadditionB.soundlossC.soundshiftD.soundmovement4.Achangethatinvolvestheinsertionofaconsonantorvowelsoundtothemiddleofawordisknownas.

40A.apocopeB.epenthesisC.parenthesisD.antithesis1.Segmentswitchofsoundpositionscanbeseenintheexampleofthemodernword"bird"whichcomesfromtheoldEnglishword"bridd".Thechangeofthewordfrom"bridd"to"bird"isacaseof.A.metathesisB.soundlossC.soundadditionD.apocope1..isaprocessofcombiningtwoormorewordsintoonelexicalunit.A.DerivationB.BlendingC.CompoundingD.Abbreviation46."Wife",whichusedtorefertoanywoman,standsfor"amarriedwoman"inmodernEnglish.Thisphenomenonisknownas.A.semanticshiftB.semanticbroadeningC.semanticelevationD.semanticnarrowing

4146.Englishlanguagebelongsto.A.Indo-EuropeanFamilyB.Sino-TibetanFamilyC.AustronesianFamilyD.AfroasiaticFamily47.Byanalogytothepluralformationoftheword“dog-s〃,speakersstartedsaying"cows"asthepluralof"cow〃insteadoftheearlierplural"kine”.Thisisthecaseof.A.elaborationB.externalborrowingC.soundassimilationD.internalborrowing48.Morphologcialchangescaninvolve.A.thelossofmorphologicalrulesB.theadditionofmorphologicalrulesC.thealterationofmorphologicalrulesD.alloftheabove49.Themostdramaticmorphologicallossconcernsthelossof.A.comparativemarkersB.tensemarkersC.genderandcasemarkersD.noneoftheaboveIV.Definethefollowingterms:

4246.Apocope47.Metathesis48.Derivation49.back-formation50.semanticnarrowing51.protolanguage52.haplology53.epenthesis54.Compounding55.Blending56.semanticbroadening57.semanticshift58.GreatVowelShift59.acronym60.soundassimilationV.Answerthefollowingquestions:61.Whatisthepurposeorsignificanceofthehistoricalstudyoflanguage?62.Whatarethecharacteristicsofthenatureoflanguagechange?63.WhatarethemajorperiodsinthehistoryofEnglish?64.Aslanguagechangesovertime,themeaningofawordmaydeviatefromitsoriginaldenotation.Discussthemajortypesofsemanticchanges.65.OvertheyearsfromOldEnglishperiodtotheModernEnglishperiod,Englishhasundergonesomemajorsoundchanges.Illustratethesechangeswithsomeexamples.

4346.Whatarethemostwidely-spreadmorphologicalchangesinthehistoricaldevelopmentofEnglish?47.Whatarethecausesoflanguagechange?Discussthemindetail.Chapter8Sociolinguisticsl.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:1.Sociolinguisticsisthesub-disciplineoflinguisticsthatstudiessocialcontexts.2.Languageasameansofsocialcommunicationisahomogeneoussystemwithahomogeneousgroupofspeakers.3.Languageusevariesfromonespeechcommunitytoanother,fromoneregionalgrouptoanother,fromonesocialgrouptoanother,andevenfromoneindividualtoanother.4.Thegoalofsociolinguisticsistoexplorethenatureoflanguagevariationandlanguageuseamongavarietyofspeechcommunitiesandindifferentsocialsituations.5.Thelinguisticmarkersthatcharacterizeindividualsocialgroupsmayserveassocialmarkersofgroupmembership.6.Fromthesociolinguisticperspective,theterm“speechvariety"cannotbeusedtorefertostandardlanguage,vernacularlanguage,dialectorpidgin.7.Functionalspeechvarietiesareknownasregionaldialects.8.Themostdistinguishablelinguisticfeatureofaregionaldialectisitsgrammarandusesofvocabulary.9.Geographicalbarriersaretheonlysourceofregionalvariationoflanguage.

441.Aperson'ssocialbackgroundsdonotexertashapinginfluenceonhischoiceoflinguisticfeatures.2.Twospeakersofthesamelanguageordialectusetheirlanguageordialectinthesameway.3.Everyspeakerofalanguageis,inastrictersense,aspeakerofadistinctidiolect.4.Thestandardlanguageisabetterlanguagethannonstandardlanguages.5.Alinguafrancacanonlybeusedwithinaparticularcountryforcommunicationamonggroupsofpeoplewithdifferentlinguisticbackgrounds.6.Pidginsarelinguisticallyinferiortostandardlanguages.7.Apidginusuallyreflectstheinfluenceofthehigher,ordominant,languageinitslexiconandthatofthelowerlanguageintheirphonologyandoccasionallysyntax.8.Themajordifferencebetweenapidginandacreoleisthattheformerusuallyhasitsnativespeakerswhilethelatterdoesn't.9.Bilingualismanddiglossiameanthesamething.10.Thekindofnameortermspeakersusetocallorrefertosomeonemayindicatesomethingoftheirsocialrelationshiptoorpersonalfeelingsaboutthatindividual.11.Theuseofeuphemismshastheeffectofremovingderogatoryovertonesandthedisassociativeeffectassuchisusuallylong-lasting.n.Fillineachoftheblanksbelowwithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:12.Thesocialgroupisolatedforanygivenstudyiscalledthespeechc.13.Speechvreferstoanydistinguishableformofspeechusedbya

45speakerorgroupofspeakers.1.Fromthesociolinguisticperspective,aspeechvarietyisnomorethanadvarietyofalanguage.2.Languagestandardizationisalsocalledlanguagep.3.Socialvariationgivesrisetoswhicharesubdivisibleintosmallerspeechcategoriesthatreflecttheirsocioeconomic,educational,occupationalbackground,etc.4.Svariationinaperson1sspeechorwritingusuallyrangesonacontinuumfromcasualorcolloquialtoformalorpoliteaccordingtothetypeofcommunicativesituation.5.Aregionaldialectmaygainstatusandbecomestandardizedasthenationalor〇languageofacountry.6.Thestandardlanguageisas,sociallyprestigiousdialectoflanguage.7.Languagevarietiesotherthanthestandardarecallednonstandard,orvlanguages.8.Apidgintypicallylacksinimorphemes.9.Linguistictabooreflectsstaboo.10.Theavoidanceofusingtaboolanguagemirrorssocialattitudes,emotionsandvaluejudgmentsandhasnoIbasis.l.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:

461..isconcernedwiththesocialsignificanceoflanguagevariationandlanguageuseindifferentspeechcommunities.A.PsycholinguisticsB.SociolinguisticsC.HistoricallinguisticsD.Generallinguistics34.Themostdistinguishablelinguisticfeatureofaregionaldialectisits.A.useofwordsB.useofstructuresC.accentD.morphemes35.isspeechvariationaccordingtotheparticularareawhereaspeakercomesfrom.A.RegionalvariationB.LanguagevariationC.SocialvariationD.Registervariation36.arethemajorsourceofregionalvariationoflanguage.A.GeographicalbarriersB.Loyaltytoandconfidenceinone'snativespeechC.PhysicaldiscomfortandpsychologicalresistancetochangeD.Socialbarriers37.meansthatcertainauthorities,suchasthegovernmentchoose,aparticular

47speechvariety,standardizeitandspreadtheuseofitacrossregionalboundaries.A.LanguageinterferenceB.LanguagechangesC.LanguageplanningD.Languagetransfer4.1inaperson1sspeechorwritingusuallyrangesonacontinuumfromcasualorcolloquialtoformalorpoliteaccordingtothetypeofcommunicativesituation.A.RegionalvariationB.ChangesinemotionsC.VariationinconnotationsD.Stylisticvariation39.Aisavarietyoflanguagethatservesasamediumofcommunicationamonggroupsofpeoplefordiverselinguisticbackgrounds.A.linguafrancaB.registerC.CreoleD.nationallanguage40.Althougharesimplifiedlanguageswithreducedgrammaticalfeatures,theyarerule-governed,likeanyhumanlanguage.A.vernacularlanguagesB.creoles

48A.pidginsB.sociolects39.Innormalsituations,speakerstendtousemoreprestigiousformsthantheircounterpartswiththesamesocialbackground.A.female;maleB.male;femaleC.old;youngD.young;old40.Alinguisticreferstoawordorexpressionthatisprohibitedbythe“polite“societyfromgeneraluse.A.slangB.euphemismC.jargonD.tabooIV.Definethefollowingterms:41.sociolinguistics42.speechcommunity43.speechvariety44.languageplanning45.idiolect46.standardlanguage47.nonstandardlanguage59.taboo

4959.euphemism50.linguafranca51.pidgin52.Creole53.diglossia54.Bilingualism55.ethnicdialect56.Sociolect57.register

50V.Answerthefollowingquestionsascomprehensivelyaspossible.Giveexamplesforillustrationifnecessary:61.Discusswithexamplesthatthespeechofwomenmaydifferfromthespeechofmen.62.DiscusswithexamplessomeofthelinguisticdifferencesbetweenStandardEnglishandBlackEnglish.63.Whatisalinguistictaboo?Whateffectdoesithaveonouruseoflanguage?Chapter9Psycholinguistics1.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:1.Thelinguisticabilityofhumanbeingsdependsprimarilyonthestructureofthevocalcords.2.Humanbeingsaretheonlyorganismsinwhichoneparticularpartofthelefthalfofthebrainislargerthanthecorrespondingpartoftherighthalf.3.ThecaseofPhineasGagesuggeststhatifourlanguageabilityislocatedinthebrain,itisclearthatitisnotsituatedrightatthefront.4.Ingeneral,therightsideofthebraincontrolsvoluntarymovementsof,andrespondstosignalsfrom,theleftsideofthebody,whereastheleftsidecontrolsvoluntarymovementsof,andrespondstosignalsfrom,therightsideofthebody.5.Languagefunctionsarebelievedtobelateralizedprimarilyinthelefthemisphereofthebrain.6.Thelanguagewespeakdeterminesthewayweperceivetheworldandthereforethenatureofthought.7.Humanbeingscannotthinkwithoutlanguage,justastheycannotspeakwithout

51thinking.1.Ifalanguagelacksaword,itsspeakerswillnotbeabletograspitsconcept.2.Generallyspeaking,lefthemisphereisresponsibleforlanguageandspeech,analyticreasoning,associativethought,etc.,whiletherighthemisphereisresponsibleforperceptionofnonlinguisticsounds,holisticreasoning,recognitionofmusicalmelodies,etc.3.Languagebynomeansdeterminesthewaysweperceivetheobjectiveworld,butbyitsconvenience,availability,andhabitualuse,doesinfluencetheperceptionsofhumanbeing.n.Fillineachoftheblanksbelowwithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:4.Pisthestudyoflanguageinrelationtothemind.5.Themostimportantpartofthebrainistheoutsidesurfaceofthebrain,calledthecerebralc,whichisthedecision-makingorganofthebody.6.Thebrainisdividedintotworoughlysymmetricalhalves,calledh,oneontherightandoneontheleft.7.ThelocalizationofcognitiveandperceptualfunctionsinaparticularsideofthebrainiscalledI.8.Brainlateralizationisgprogrammed,buttakestimetodevelop.9.Inadditiontothemareawhichisresponsibleforphysicalarticulationofutterances,threeareasofthelefthemispherearevitaltolanguage,namely,Broca'sarea,Wernicke'sareaandtheangulargyrus.10.Therelationshipbetweenthenameandthemeaningofawordisquite

52a.1.Whenlanguageandthoughtareidenticalorcloselyparalleltoeachother,wemayregardthoughtassspeechandspeechas〇thought.2.Becauselanguagesdifferinmanyways,Whorfbelievedthatspeakersofdifferentlanguagesperceiveandexperiencetheworlddifferently,relativetotheirlinguisticbackground.Thisnotioniscalledlinguisticr.3.Thebasicessentialsofthefirstlanguageareacquiredintheshortperiodfromaboutagetwotopuberty,whichiscalledthecperiodforfirstlanguageacquisition.4.ThestrongversionofSapir-Whorfhypothesishastwoaspects:linguisticdandlinguisticrelativism.O.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Markthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement:5.HumanlinguisticabilitylargelydependsonthestructureanddynamicsofA.humanbrainB.humanvocalcordsC.humanmemoryD.human6.Psychologists,neurologistsandlinguistshaveconcludedthat,inadditiontothemotorareawhichisresponsibleforphysicalarticulationofutterances,threeareasoftheleftbrainarevitaltolanguage,namely,.A.Broca'sarea,Wernicke'sareaandtheangulargyrusB.Broca'sarea,Wernicke'sareaandcerebralcortex

53A.Broca'sarea,Wernicke'sareaandneuronsB.Broca'sarea,Wernicke'sareaandExner'sarea1.Theagefortheacquisitionofthefirstlanguagecoincideswiththeperiodofbrainlateralization.A.youngestB.flexibleC.optimumD.relevant2.Linguisticisthebrain'sneurologicalspecializationforlanguage.A.fossilizationB.performanceC.competenceD.lateralization3.Ourlinguisticabilityisagiftofthespecies'geneprogram.A.chemicalB.physicalC.scientificD.biological27.showsthatifourlanguageabilityislocatedinthebrain,itisclearthatitisnotsituatedrightatthefrontofthebrain.A.ThecaseofGenieB.ThecaseofPhineasGage

54A.ThecomponentialanalysisB.Thecontrastiveanalysis28.Themostimportantpartofthebrainistheoutsidesurfaceofthebrain,calledA.theneuronsB.nervepathwaysC.cerebralcortexD.sensoryorgans29.Accordingtolateralizationtheory,whichofthefollowingisnottheprimaryfunctionofthelefthemisphereofthebrain?A.analyticreasoningB.temporalorderingC.associativethoughtD.visualandspatialskills30.iscommonlyheldtobeanevolutionarypreconditionofthedevelopmentofsuperiorintelligenceaswellasapreconditionoflanguageacquisition.A.LateralizationB.MaturationC.BrainseparationD.Memorycapacity31.Thedichoticlisteningresearchshowsthatthelefthemisphereisnotsuperiorforprocessingallsounds,butonlyforthosethatareinnature.

55A.non-linguisticB.musicalC.linguisticD.natural32.isresponsibleforphysicalarticulationofutterances.A.ThemotorareaB.Broca'sareaC.Wernicke*sareaD.Theangulargyrus33.Languagedisorderresultingfromadamagetointhebrainrevealsword-findingdifficultiesandproblemswithsyntax.A.themotorareaB.Broca'sareaC.Wernicke'sareaD.theangulargyrus34.In1874,theyoungGermanphysicianCarlWernickepublishedhisdiscoveryinapaperwhichcontributedtothehypothesisthat.A.therewasonlyonelanguageareaintheleftbrainB.therewasnolanguageareaintheleftbrainC.therewasonelanguageareaintherightbrainD.therewasmorethanonelanguageareaintheleftbrain

5635.isthelanguagecenterprimarilyresponsibleforconvertingavisualstimulusintoanauditoryformandviceversa.A.ThemotorareaB.Broca'sareaC.Wernicke'sareaD.Theangulargyrus36.TheneurobiologistEricLennebergisamajorproponentoftheideathatA.thereisadistinctionbetweenacquisitionandlearningB.thereisacriticalperiodforlanguageacquisitionC.languageinfluencesthinkingD.thereisinterrelationshipbetweenlanguageandthinking37.ThecaseofGenieshowsthat.A.languagecannotbeacquiredatallafterthecriticalperiodB.CerebralplasticityafterpubertyisstillhighenoughtoforasuccessfulmasteryofanewlanguageC.thelanguagefacultyofanaveragehumandegeneratesafterthecriticalperiodD.thelanguagelearningshouldbedoneasearlyaspossibleIV.Explainthefollowingterms:38.psycholinguistics39.brainlateralization40.dichoticlistening41.Broca'sarea

5736.angulargyms37.cerebralplasticity38.linguisticdeterminism39.subvocalspeech40.cerebralcortex41.linguisticlateralization42.rightearadvantage43.criticalperiodhypothesis44.Sapir-Whorfhypothesis45.linguisticrelativism46.overtthought47.intrapersonalcommunication54.interpersonalcommunicationV.Answerthefollowingquestions:55.Whatarethebiologicalfoundationsoflanguage?56.Whatarethemajormentalfunctionsunderthecontrolofeachhemisphere?57.Whatcanwedobymeansofdichoticlisteningtests?58.WhatisthesafeconclusionfromGenie'scase?59.Howarelanguageandthoughtrelatedtoeachother?Chapter10LanguageAcquisition1.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:1.LIdevelopmentandL2developmentseemtoinvolvethesameprocesses.2.Thecapacitytoacquireone'sfirstlanguageisafundamentalhumantraitthatall

58humanbeingsareequallywellpossessedwith.1.Allnormalchildrenhaveequalabilitytoacquiretheirfirstlanguage.2.Childrenfollowasimilaracquisitionscheduleofpredictablestagesalongtherouteoflanguagedevelopmentacrosscultures,thoughthereisanidiosyncraticvariationintheamountoftimethattakesindividualstomasterdifferentaspectsofthegrammar.3.Humanscanbesaidtobepredisposedandbiologicallyprogrammedtoacquireatleastonelanguage.4.Somelanguagesareinferior,orsuperior,tootherlanguages.5.Languageacquisitionisprimarilytheacquisitionofthevocabularyandthemeaningoflanguage.6.Humanbeingsaregeneticallypredeterminedtoacquirelanguage;thisgeneticpredispositionisasufficientconditionforlanguagedevelopment.7.Childrenwhogrowupinculturewherecaretakerspeechisabsentacquiretheirnativelanguagemoreslowlythanchildrenwhoareexposedtocaretakerspeech.8.Inmothertongueacquisition,normalchildrenarenotnecessarilyequallysuccessful.9.Forthevastmajorityofchildren,languagedevelopmentoccursspontaneouslyandrequirelittleconsciousinstructiononthepartofadults.10.Theavailableevidencetodateindicatesthatanexplicitteachingofcorrectformstoyoungchildrenplaysaminorroleatbest.11.Correctionandreinforcementarenotkeyfactorsinchildlanguagedevelopment

59astheywereclaimedtobe.1.Imitation,playsatbestaveryminorroleinthechild'smasteryoflanguage.2.Observationsofchildrenindifferentlanguageareasoftheworldrevealthatthedevelopmentalstagesaresimilar,possiblyuniversal,whateverthenatureoftheinput.3.Achild'sbabblingseemstodependonthepresenceofacoustic,auditoryinput.4.Ingeneral,thetwo-wordstagebeginsroughlyinthesecondhalfofthechild'sfirstyear.5.Children'stwo-wordexpressionsareabsentofsyntacticormorphologicalmarkers.6.Childrenfirstacquirethesoundsinalllanguagesoftheworld,nomatterwhatlanguagetheyareexposedto,andinlatestagesacquirethemoredifficultsounds.7.Languageacquisitionbeginsataboutthesametimeaslateralizationdoesandisnormallycomplete,asfarastheessentialsareconcerned,bythetimethattheprocessoflateralizationcomestoanend.n.Fillineachblankbelowwithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:8.Thefirstlanguageareferstothedevelopmentofafirstornativelanguage.9.Accordingtoanviewoflanguageacquisition,humansarequippedwiththeneuralprerequisitesforlanguageandlanguageuse,justasbirdsarebiologicallyprewiredtolearnthesongsoftheirspecies.10.Acaretakerspeech,alsocalledmorb,isthetypeofmodified

60speechtypicallyaddressedtoyoungchildren.1.Blearningtheorysuggestedthatachild'sverbalbehaviourwasconditionedthroughassociationbetweenastimulusandthefollowingresponse.2.Children'sone-wordutterancesarealsocalledhsentences,becausetheycanbeusedtoexpressaconceptorpredicationthatwouldbeassociatedwithanentiresentenceinadultspeech.3.Theearlymultiwordutterancesofchildrenlackinflectionalmorphemesandmostminorlexicalcategories,theyareoftenreferredtoastspeech.4.Areferstothegradualandsubconsciousdevelopmentofabilityinthefirstlanguagebyusingitnaturallyindailycommunicativesituations.5.TheCAnalysiswasfoundedonthebeliefthatitwaspossible,byestablishingthelinguisticdifferencesbetweenthenativeandtargetlanguagesystems,topredictwhatproblemslearnersofaparticularsecondlanguagewouldfaceandthetypesoferrorstheywouldmake.6.ThelanguagethatalearnerconstructsatagivenstageofSLAisknownasi7.Learnerssubconsciouslyusetheirfirstlanguageknowledgeinlearningasecondlanguage.Thisisknownaslanguaget.8.Motivationinlanguagelearningcanbedefinedintermsofthelearner*soverallgoalororientation.Imotivationoccurswhenthelearner*sgoalisfunctionalandimotivationoccurswhenthelearner*sgoalissocial.HI.Therearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatement.Marktheonethatcanbest

61completethestatement:1.Infirstlanguageacquisition,imitationplays.A.aminorroleB.asignificantroleC.abasicroleD.norule2.Linguistshavefoundthatforthevastmajorityofchildren,languagedevelopmentoccursA.withmuchimitationB.withlittleconsciousinstructionC.withmuchcorrectionfromtheirparentsD.withlittlelinguisticinput3.Thedevelopmentoflinguisticskillsinvolvestheacquisitionofrulesratherthanthemerememorizationofwordsandsentences.A.culturalB.grammaticalC.behaviourD.pragmatic4.hasbeenfoundtooccurusuallyinchildren*spronunciationorreportingofthetruthfulnessofutterances,ratherthaninthegrammaticalityofsentences.A.Punishment

62A.InstructionB.ReinforcementC.Imitation1.Accordingtothe,theacquisitionofasecondlanguageinvolves,andisdependenton,theacquisitionofthecultureofthetargetlanguagecommunity.A.acculturationviewB.mentalistviewC.behaviouristviewD.conceptualistview2.Ingeneral,agoodsecondlearnerisanadolescent.A.whohasastrongandwell-definedmotivationtolearnB.whoseeksoutallchancestointeractwiththeinputC.whoiswillingtoidentifyhimselfwiththecultureofthetargetlanguagecommunityD.alltheabove3.Theoptimumageforsecondlanguageacquisitionis.A.earlyteenageB.afterpubertyC.atpubertyD.afterthebrainlateralization4.Theformalinstructioninsecondlanguageacquisition.A.hasnoeffectatall

63A.hasapowerfuldelayedeffectB.hasverylittleeffectC.hasunsatisfactoryeffect40.isbelievedtobeamajorsourceofincorrectformsresistanttofurtherinstruction.A.Thesecondlanguagelearners1unwillingnesstolearnB.ThePoorclassroomteachingC.Thefossilizationofthelearner'sinterlanguageD.Thelearner'slackofinstrumentalmotivation41.Whichofthefollowingisnottrue?A.Interlanguageisaproductofcommunicativestrategiesofthelearner.B.Interlanguageisaproductofmothertongueinterference.C.Interlanguageisaproductofovergeneralizationofthetargetlanguagerules.D.Interlanguageistherepresentationoflearners'unsystematicL2rules.42.1,exceptthosewithmentalorphysicalimpairments,arebetterorworsefirstlanguageacquirers.A.SomemenB.AlmostallmenC.NomenD.FewmenIV.Explainthefollowingterms:43.caretakerspeech44.holophrasticsentences

6443.telegraphicspeech44.secondlanguageacquisition47.acquisition48.learning49.transfer50.interlanguage51.fossilization52.instrumentalmotivation53.integrativemotivation54.acculturationV.Answerthefollowingquestionsascomprehensivelyaspossible.Giveexamplesforillustrationifnecessary:55.What'sthedifferencebetweenacquisitionandlearning,accordingtoKrashen?56.Howdothelearnerfactorspotentiallyinfluencethewayinwhichasecondlanguageisacquired?57.WhatistheroleofinputforSLA?58.Howdoyouunderstandinterlanguage?59.Discussthecontrastiveanalysisindetail.60.Whatarethemajorstagesthatachildhastofollowinfirstlanguagedevelopment?Whatarethefeaturesofthelinguisticformsateachstage?61.Whatistheroleofcorrectionandreinforcementinfirstlanguageacquisition?62.Whydowesaylanguageacquisitionisprimarilytheacquisitionofthegrammaticalsystemoflanguage?63.Discussthebiologicalbasisoflanguageacquisition.

6549.Whatistheroleofimitationinfirstlanguageacquisition?Suggestedanswerstosupplementaryexercises:Chapter1IntroductionI.DecidewhethereachofthefollowingstatementsisTrueorFalse:I.T2.F3.F4.T5.T6.F7.T8.F9.T10.FII.T12.T13.T14.T15.T16.F17.T18.F19.F20.Fn.Fillineachofthefollowingblankswithonewordwhichbeginswiththelettergiven:21.knowledge22.abstract23.Duality24.arbitrary25.syntax26.genetic27.Parole28.applied29.productive30.scientific(orsystematic)m.TherearefourchoicesfollowingeachstatementMarkthechoicethatcanbestcompletethestatement.31.C32.D33.C34.D35.B36.A37.C38.B39.A40.DIV.Definethefollowingterms:41.Linguistics:Linguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.42.Phonology:Thestudyofhowsoundsareputtogetherandusedincommunicationiscalledphonology.43.Syntax:Thestudyofhowmorphemesandwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesiscalledsyntax.44.Pragmatics:Thestudyofmeaningincontextofuseiscalledpragmatics.45.Psycholinguistics:Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetotheworkingsofmindiscalledpsycholinguistics.46.Language:Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhuman

66communication.41.Phonetics:Thestudyofsoundswhichareusedinlinguisticcommunicationiscalledphonetics.42.Morphology:Thestudyofthewayinwhichmorphemesarearrangedtoformwordsiscalledmorphology.43.Semantics:Thestudyofmeaninginlanguageiscalledsemantics.44.Sociolinguistics:Thestudyoflanguagewithreferencetosocietyiscalledsociolinguistics.45.Appliedlinguistics:Inanarrowsense,appliedlinguisticsreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticprinciplesandtheoriestolanguageteachingandlearning,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguages.Inabroadsense,itreferstotheapplicationoflinguisticfindingstothesolutionofpracticalproblemssuchastherecoveryofspeechability.46.arbitrariness:Itisoneofthedesignfeaturesoflanguage.Itmeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds47.Productivity:Languageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.48.Displacement:Displacementmeansthatlanguagecanbeusedtorefertothingswhicharepresentornotpresent,realorimaginedmattersinthepast,present,orfuture,orinfar-awayplaces.Inotherwords,languagecanbeusedtorefertocontexts

67removedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker41.Duality:Thedualitynatureoflanguagemeansthatlanguageisasystem,whichconsistsoftwosetsofstructure,ortwolevels,oneofsoundsandtheotherofmeanings.42.Designfeatures:Designfeaturesrefertothedefiningpropertiesofhumanlanguagethatdistinguishitfromanyanimalsystemofcommunication43.Competence:Chomskydefinescompetenceastheidealuser'sknowledgeoftherulesofhislanguage,44.Performance:performanceistheactualrealizationoftheknowledgeoftherulesinlinguisticcommunication.45.langue:Languereferstotheabstractlinguisticsystemsharedbyallthemembersofaspeechcommunity;Langueisthesetofconventionsandruleswhichlanguageusersallhavetofollow;Langueisrelativelystable,itdoesnotchangefrequently46.Parole:Parolereferstotherealizationoflangueinactualuse;paroleistheconcreteuseoftheconventionsandtheapplicationoftherules;parolevariesfrompersontoperson,andfromsituationtosituation.V.Answerthefollowingquestionsascomprehensivelyaspossible.Giveexamplesforillustrationifnecessary:47.Languageisgenerallydefinedasasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Explainitindetail.Firstofall,languageisasystem,becauseelementsoflanguagearecombined

68accordingtorules.Secondly,languageisarbitrarybecausethereisnointrinsicconnectionbetweenformandmeaning,orbetweenthesignandwhatitstandsfor.Differentlanguageshavedifferentwordsforthesameobjectintheworld.Thisfactisagoodillustrationofthearbitrarynatureoflanguage.Thisalsoexplainsthesymbolicnatureoflanguage:wordsarejustsymbols;theyareassociatedwithobjects,actions,ideas,etc.byconvention.Thirdly,languageisvocalbecausetheprimarymediumissoundforalllanguages,nomatterhowwell-developedtheirwritingsystemsare.Theterm“human“inthedefinitionindicatesthatlanguageispossessedbyhumanbeingsonlyandisverydifferentfromthecommunicationsystemsofotherlivingcreatures.Theterm"communication"meansthatlanguagemakesitpossibleforitsuserstotalktoeachotherandfulfiltheircommunicativeneeds.41.Whatarethedesignfeaturesofhumanlanguage?Illustratethemwithexamples.(1)ArbitrarinessAsmentionedearlier,thearbitrarypropertyoflanguagemeansthatthereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Forinstance,thereisnonecessaryrelationshipbetweenthewordelephantandtheanimalitsymbolizes.Inaddition,differentsoundsareusedtorefertothesameobjectindifferentlanguages,andevenwithinthesamelanguage,thesamesounddoesnotrefertothesamething.However,languageisnotentirelyarbitrary.Therearewordswhicharecreatedintheimitationofsoundsbysounds,suchascrash,banginEnglish.Besides,somecompoundwordsarealsonotentirely

69arbitrary.Butthenon-arbitrarywordsarequitelimitedinnumber.Thearbitrarynatureoflanguagemakesitpossibleforlanguagetohaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.(1)ProductivityLanguageisproductiveorcreativeinthatitmakespossibletheconstructionandinterpretationofnewsignalsbyitsusers.Thisiswhytheycanproduceandunderstandaninfinitelylargenumberofsentences,includingsentencesthattheyhaveneversaidorheardbefore.Theycansendmessageswhichnooneelsehaseversentbefore.Productivityisuniquetohumanlanguage.Mostanimalcommunicationsystemsappeartobehighlyrestrictedwithrespecttothenumberofdifferentsignalsthattheiruserscansendandreceive.NPVPDetNVtNPDetNTheboylikesthemusic.46.Whataretheadvantagesofusingtreediagramsintheanalysisofsentencestructures?Thetreediagramcannotonlyrevealalinearorder,butalsoahierarchicalstructurethatgroupswordsintostructuralconstituents.Itcan,inaddition,showthesyntacticcategoryofeachstructuralconstituent,thusitisbelievedtomosttruthfullyillustratetheconstituentrelationshipamonglinguisticelements.47.WhatisNPmovement.Illustrateitwithexamples.NPmovementinvolvesthemovementofanounphrase.NP-movementoccurswhen,

70forexample,asentencechangesfromtheactivevoicetothepassivevoice:(A)Themanbeatthechild.(B)Thechildwasbeatenbytheman.Bistheresultofthemovementofthenounphrases“theman"and"thechild"fromtheiroriginalpositionsin(A)tonewpositions.Thatis,"theman"ispostposedtotherightand"thechild"ispreposedtotheleft.NotallinstancesofNP-movement,however,arerelatedtochangingasentencefromtheactivevoicetothepassivevoice.Forexample:(C)Itseemstheyarequitefitforthejob.(D)Theyseemquitefitforthejob.Thesesentencesareidenticalinmeaning,butdifferentintheirsuperficialsyntacticrepresentations.Itisbelievedthattheyhavethesameunderlyingstructure,but(27b)istheresultofanNPmovement.Chapter5Semantics